INTRODUCTION TO
PATHOLOGY OF BLOOD AND URINE
PREPARED BY MR. ABHIJIT DAS
LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell crucial
for the immune system. They include B cells (producing antibodies) and T cells
(mediate immune responses). Both are agranulocytes.
ROLE OF LYMPHOCYTES IN HEALTH AND
DISEASE
1.
Immune Defense:
Lymphocytes are key players in the immune system, defending the body against
infections and diseases.
2.
B Cell Antibody Production:
B cells, a type of lymphocyte, produce antibodies that bind to and neutralize
pathogens like bacteria and viruses.
3.
T Cell Attack:
Another type of lymphocyte, T cells, directly attack and eliminate infected or
abnormal cells in the body.
4.
Memory Cells:
After an infection, some lymphocytes become memory cells, providing a faster response
on encountering the same pathogen again.
5.
Surveillance for Abnormalities:
Lymphocytes continuously survey the body for abnormalities, such as cancerous
cells, and initiate responses to eliminate these threats.
6.
Adaptive Immunity:
The ability of lymphocytes to adapt to specific pathogens contributes to the
adaptive immunity of the body.
7.
Lymphoid Organs:
Lymphocytes are found in lymphoid organs like the spleen, thymus, and lymph
nodes, where they are positioned to encounter pathogens.
PLATELETS
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small
cell fragments in the blood that play a crucial role in blood clotting. They
are essential for preventing excessive bleeding when there is damage to blood
vessels.
ROLE OF PLATELETS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE
1.
Blood Clotting (Hemostasis):
In health, platelets play a vital role in preventing excessive bleeding by
forming blood clots at the site of vascular injury.
2.
Wound Healing:
Platelets release growth factors that contribute to tissue repair and wound
healing, promoting the regeneration of damaged areas.
3.
Inflammation Regulation:
Platelets release substances that modulate inflammation, helping to regulate
the body's response to injury or infection.
4.
Blood Volume Maintenance:
Platelets contribute to the maintenance of blood volume by preventing excessive
loss through clot formation.
5.
Clot Removal:
After the healing process, platelets are involved in clot removal mechanisms to
restore normal blood flow.
6.
Platelet Disorders:
Health issues such as thrombocytopenia (low platelet count) or thrombocythemia
(high platelet count) can disrupt normal physiological processes, impacting
clotting and overall health.
ERYTHROCYTES- ABNORMAL CELLS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are blood cells
that transport oxygen throughout the body. Abnormal erythrocytes may exhibit
structural or functional irregularities, leading to conditions such as anemia
or blood disorders.
ABNORMAL ERYTHROCYTES AND THEIR
SIGNIFICANCE:
1.
Sickle Cell Anemia:
Sickle-shaped erythrocytes can lead to blockages in blood vessels, causing
pain, organ damage, and an increased risk of infections.
2.
Iron Deficiency Anemia:
Microcytic (small) and hypochromic (pale) erythrocytes are characteristic of
iron deficiency anemia, impacting oxygen transport and leading to fatigue and
weakness.
3.
Megaloblastic Anemia:
Enlarged erythrocytes may be seen in megaloblastic anemias, affecting oxygen-carrying
capacity.
4.
Thalassemia:
Abnormalities in hemoglobin production can result in thalassemia, causing anemia.
5.
Hemolytic Anemia:
Increased destruction of erythrocytes can occur in hemolytic anemias, leading
to a shortage of red blood cells.
6.
Polycythemia:
Elevated erythrocyte levels can be seen in polycythemia, which may result in
increased blood viscosity, raising the risk of clot formation and
cardiovascular events.
7.
Aplastic Anemia:
Reduced erythrocyte production in the bone marrow characterizes aplastic
anemia, resulting in low red blood cell counts.
8.
Pernicious Anaemia:
Pernicious anemia is a type of anemia characterized by a deficiency of vitamin
B12, which is essential for the production of red blood cells.
ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
1.
Protein (Proteinuria):
Presence of excess protein in urine may indicate kidney damage or dysfunction.
2.
Glucose (Glycosuria):
Elevated glucose levels in urine may be a sign of diabetes or other conditions
affecting glucose regulation in the body.
3.
Blood (Hematuria):
Blood in urine may indicate inflammation in glomerulus, urinary tract
infections, or more severe conditions such as bladder or kidney disease.
4.
Ketones (Ketonuria):
The presence of ketones in urine may be a sign of uncontrolled diabetes or
other metabolic disorders.
5.
Bilirubin (Bilirubinuria):
Increased bilirubin levels in urine can be an indicator of liver disease or
hemolytic anemia.
6.
White Blood Cells (Pyuria):
Elevated white blood cell count in urine may indicate inflammation or infection
in the urinary tract.